"How Global Economic Revolution Started And it's Effect in Every Country".
Do you think International community will be interfering in any Africa countries conflicts if they did not have a lot of oil or other mineral resources?' well if you actually believe that, you might want to review the last few decades of Africa History.
I have written articles about the "African's Mentality towards the American's and European's alien in African continent", I have also write an article about "Political leadership corruptions through religion". So now, i will be written about THE WORLD ECONOMY DISASTERS CAUSED BY EUROPEAN'S AND THE AMERICAN'S GOVERNMENT.
When we talk of Economic Disaster, what do we mean by Economic disasters?. To my Idea and my Knowledge, Economic disasters is a calamitous event that disrupts the functioning of a community or society and causes human and environmental losses.
Syrian children play in muddy water in an improvised camp on the border line between Macedonia
The International and local media's has being really busy downplaying the Economic impact of disasters in the world especially in Africa and the Middle East but the truth is that,this impact of disaster have a lot implications for the Global economy whereby it's affecting other countries economic in the world.
I do not want to be a bearer of ill tidings, but i think we should always wonder what are the causes of World economy disaster. The world economy is now more interconnected that ever whereby financial markets are heavily regulated mostly in Africa while capital markets are expanding in Asia countries. The banking and other sectors are going through a concentration process with fewer and fewer income profits.
Over the last few decades the world has become richer and more prosperous. While the percentage of the population in absolute poverty is today at its lowest level ever, the absolute number of poor people continues to grow. In this context income inequality is one of the social battles that we need to fight. So today our world is more intertwined than ever,whereby economic disaster in one part of the world is going to have an effect on other areas of the globe.
I will explain some reasons,effect and causes of Economic disasters in today's world, i will also Explain the contributions of the European's and the American's to this disasters.
Revolution in The Middle East and Africa:
throughout the Middle East and North African continent, Civilian protests and revolts have erupted as people's frustrations with their conditions appears to have boiled over. The Middle East is riddled with authoritarian regimes of various kind like dictatorships,monarchies and public republics. most of these regimes have been given legitimacy through the support of the Outside world like the Western countries and the Former Soviet Union.
potential proton-democracies emerging from a global wave of anti-colonialism were overthrown and replaced by dictators, while others were corrupted in various ways. Aid, in the form of military aid, or support in the form of foreign military bases ensured continued influence of outside superpowers while entrenching the illegitimate regimes.
Various potent issues and cases have combined in different ways in recent months. Some of these can be generalised across the Middle East and Africa countries, such as the Global financial crisis,rising of food prices, Lower of Oil prices in some oil producing Country in Africa, increase in unemployment, ethnic and cultural division..
Interest of the Western countries in These region and how its affecting the African countries Economy.
A lot of International and Local medias reports frame this is a Middle East protest, which it is but that does not mean it is not also a part of growing unrest and protest around Africa. There have being protest and unrest in some various African countries like Nigeria, Sudan, Somalia, south Africa, Cameroon, Madagascar, Zimbabwe etc. Not all of these are revolution-oriented or to the same scale, admittedly. This countries are related to the rising food prices, increase in the Economic hardship, an increasing youth Unemployment which is inter-related to the North African Experience and even wider global issues.
The Western countries really have a contributions to make, then it will be an honest and accurate audit of the nature of the states our governments have for so long been supporting, not prevarication. To say the fact,not vague ideals, and in describing it, reboot and policies that have for so long support repression and corruption. Firstly i will say, the only way that African revolution will take place, in economic and cultural terms is if the union of revolutionary African state is formed. No African Nation has ever archived democracy or political stability after a coup d'etat. African's must fight against economic elitism. Tax the rich politicians and there children's and Religion rulers more than they are being taxed, tax their bank savings and interest from it, tax there overseas stashes. The Africa economic elites often posses trillions which were appropriated through corruption, worker exploitation, collaboration with western exploits and through theft from natural resources.
In the Middle East situation, tension continued in 1972 because of the radical actions of the Arab guerrillas and Israel's frequent military operations against Syria and Lebanon. Although a state of cease-fire had existed since the Middle East war five years before. There were no sign of concrete progress towards peace in the Arab-Israel conflict. The contention of both sides remained far apart, the United State could not take the positive initiative in bringing out peace because of the U.S. presidential election, and the United States put emphasis on the handling of the Vietnam problem in its diplomacy, moves of the soviet Union and the United States, Israel's military superiority remained unchanged, and the Arab side was not in a position to settle the dispute by force.
The Soviet Union began to show moves to promote close relations with its southern neighbours by taking such measure as Premier Kosygin's visit to Iraq, The conclusion of the Soviet-Iraq treaty of friendship and corporation and chairman Podgorny's visit to Turkey. Despite Egyptian President Sadat's visit to the Soviet Union immediately after these events (from April 27 to 29), these Soviet moves were considered as something different from its past Egypt-oriented Middle East policy. In contrast to the subsequent cooling-off of its relations with Egypt, Iraqi President Bakr's official visit to the Soviet Union (in September), which promoted Soviet-Iraqi cooperation in the economic and military fields, and the Soviet Union's moves for a rapprochement with Syria were conspicuous, It is believed that the Soviet Union will continue making efforts to increase its influence over the Middle East, while taking into consideration effects of Egypt's declining diplomatic influence.
History of oil price and Middle East tension; Fear of black Gold
It seems that both the Arab side and Israel tried to reconfirm their positions through these visits to the United States and the Soviet Union prior to the U.S.-Soviet summit talks that followed. Both the United States and the Soviet Union merely listened to the arguments of the parties concerned and assumed the position of keeping options open for the future. It can be said that these visits basically helped prepare the ground for active diplomatic moves for a settlement of the Middle East problem. Participation in management by oil-producing countries
Moves over the petroleum problem centring around the oil-producing countries in the Near and Middle East became even more active than in the preceding year, and the situation throughout the world regarding the petroleum questions changed greatly.The negotiations for participation in management started in February 1972 between Saudi Arabia's Minister of Petroleum Ahmed Zaki Yamani, who represented the six oil-producing countries on the Arabian (Persian) Gulf (Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Abu Dhabi, Qatar and Saudi Arabia), and the major international oil companies, resulted in the conclusion of the Riyadh Agreement in January 1973, although Iran dropped out in the course of the negotiations. In the past, the oil-producing countries used to obtain revenues in the form of royalties and income taxes from the international oil companies operating in their countries. The Riyadh Agreement is intended to change this relationship so that the oil-producing countries also can participate in the management of the petroleum companies.
Their participation this time was limited to petroleum development and exploitation with the distribution and sale of petroleum excluded, In the words of Minister of Petroleum Yamani, it was an "Islamic-Catholic marriage" between the oil-producing countries and international oil companies (this particular wording is construed as meaning that the arrangement is of Islamic style because the oil-producing countries have a majority share of 51 per cent and is compared to a Catholic marriage in that it does not allow a divorce).
The three major points in the Riyadh Agreement were as follows:
(I) Change in petroleum system
(II) The rate of participation of oil-producing countries in 1975 will be 25%.
(III)The price of crude oil to be sold back will be determined by each country according to the type of oil.
In 1972, there were changes of government in Ghana on January 13th, in Madagascar on may 25th and in Dahomey on October 26th in with the military took over power from the Civilian governments.
Attempted coup d'etats occurred in the Congo and sierra Leone and Burundi. Many of other African countries were such an event did not occur also faced with such problems and antagonism between different tribes and unemployment and inflation caused by economic difficulties. The stabilisation of domestic politics continued to be greatest problem for Africa Countries.
To solve this Problem, The governments of various countries should try to pacify the disputing tribes and promote economic development like;
i. Relationship with non-African countries like China,India,North Korea and South Korea.
ii. Relationship among African countries
iii. Domestic development in all African countries
iv. National liberation movements and Using of one Africa national passport.
How Global Economy Disaster Affect The Oil Producing Countries.
Well, i will say this is a little bit hard question. Oil prices have fallen to their lowest level since 2004, sinking below $28 a barrel.
Economic analysts says the drop has been driven by oversupply, coupled with a fall in demand because of a slowdown in economic growth in China and European countries.
There are fears that the lifting of Western Sanctions on Iran could worsen the existing problem, as the country prepares to pump more oil into the market, and this effect of falling prices are being felt by economies around the world. And oil producing Countries that rely on exports have been particularly hard hit, with many now feeling the social and political impact in there country.
Nigeria Economy.
Nigeria is the Africa's biggest Oil producer, but the country is lack of sufficient refining capacity and has to import most of his fuel.
Nigeria Oil scarcity
Report suggest the Nigeria president requested the withdrawal of the 2016 Nigeria budget in order to make change in the country Economy. Nigeria's state oil company shut down crude oil flows to two of it's refineries after weekend attacks on pipelines.
Saudi Arabia Economy.
Saudi Arabia income from Oil fell by 23% last year, highly significant in an economy where around 73% of total revenue comes from the industry. After the lifting of sanctions on Iran, share prices in Oil-rich Gulf states dropped sharply with the Saudi Arabia stock exchange falling 5.4% .
In December, King Salman raised the price of oil of subsidised, cheap petrol by 40%. There are also plans to decrease other subsidies and reduce the growth of public sector salaries and limit the country's dependence on oil.
Russia Economy
Russia prime minister Dmitry Medvedev has warned that the country's 2016 budget may have to be revised as a result of the unpredictable oil price. President Putin's approval rating remain sky high, at around 86%, but ordinary people are increasingly struggling riding food price.
Russia rouble is also under pressure from Economic sanctions that the west imposed on Russia for its involvement in Ukraine conflicts. The Russia currency dropped to new lows, with the exchange rate dripping to 79 roubles to dollar and 86 roubles to euro.
Venezuela Economy.
Venezuela has the world's biggest know oil reserves, and oil export account for as much as 95% of the country's revenue.People of Venezuela have been suffering from Food and basic goods shortage whereby the citizens of Venezuela are getting foods and goods from neighbouring countries.
Venezuela government announce a 60 days of economy emergency to deal with a worsening economic crisis. the edict include tax increase and put emergency measure in place to pay for welfare services and food imports.
Causes Of Global Economic Disasters By West And Russia That leads To Economic Crisis in the World.
Countries in Africa like Nigeria, Libya, Gabon, South Africa, The Republic of Congo, Sudan, Egypt, Angola, which are already facing social unrest, may see more domestic troubles . They didn't have the fiscal or investment discipline to invest in their industry or save for a rainy day when they were flush with cash. The Middle East members of OPEC may be able to sweat out several months of low crude oil prices.
There is only one Problem that leads to global economic disasters and it's really affecting African countries but this cause is unknown to most African citizens and it's leader.
It seems clear that the Western countries want to defeat Russia in Syria at all cost. This latest protracted confrontation in the middle east can be understood as a proxy war of the US and NATO against Russia. Much has been said about Russia’s intensified military involvement in Syria and its call for building an international coalition to confront ISIS.
Some Readers might be thinking how is this affecting the Economic and the Low in oil price in African Countries. I will make a clear explanation and i will ask some few questions in my article so you can follow up in the detail am about to give.
Syria is just one zone of engagement in a much wider war against Russia that has been taking place since Putin started to stand up to the West. The same confrontation also occurs in Ukraine and formerly in Georgia, where Russia successfully halted, albeit temporarily, the Western advance. This amounts to a new Cold War or an undeclared war where East and West are once more in global confrontation.
To date the policy to unseat Assad has failed miserably despite the West’s Imposition Of Punishing Economic Sanctions, its bombing of the country and the sponsoring, financing and training of what are little more than terrorist mercenaries. It is virtually impossible to distinguish the moderate rebels from the Islamist fanatics of ISIS (Islamic State).
In reality the root of the current refugee crisis in Syria lies in the strategy of “regime change” adopted by the West over many years. After its failure to effect regime change in Syria, the West now appears intent on ruthlessly exploiting the misery of the Syrian people that the West itself has contributed towards creating in the first place, using the human desperation as the latest leverage to weaken and inflict a final defeat on a country that has been outside its control for decades.
This new tactic seems to be working where sanctions and sponsoring terrorism have failed. Many of the refugees now fleeing the conflict are apparently former members of the Syrian armed forces who have simply become exhausted and had enough of the relentless fighting; this reduction in military personnel is seriously depleting Assad’s ability to resist ISIS.
The accusations of an increased Russian military presence in the country conveniently ignores the longstanding cooperation between Moscow and Damascus and flagrantly dismisses the significant role that Russia is playing in assisting Syria to combat the advance of ISIS, which is supposedly the main rationale for the current US-led military operations in Syria. Perhaps we must conclude that the West is not very serious about defeating ISIS or at least that it sees removing Assad as the top priority irrespective of the consequences. Washington does not even have a plausible puppet government-in-waiting to take the reins of power should Assad be toppled; the political vacuum is much more likely to be filled by ISIS. Tightening the noose on Russia and Syria, EU states Bulgaria and SYRIZA-led Greece are now denying Russia the use of vital airspace to supply Syria, which is clearly a further calculation designed to weaken Damascus – although Iran has offered Russia an alternative flight route.
Another front in the war against Russia is Ukraine, which has been transformed into one of the most anti-Russian regimes in Europe and sees the extension of NATO right up to Russia’s border. I am very sure we all know about the Russia,West and NATO fight in Ukraine.
NATO has been broadening its presence in Ukraine for some time but is making this new military relationship more formal with an official visit to Kiev by its Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg who was to take part in the Ukrainian Security Council. At the same time, Ukraine’s Foreign Ministry indicated that the opening of the very first NATO office in Ukraine is planned.
But later, US and European Officials called their Ukrainian counterparts, reassuring them of support, but asking Kiev to avoid a further escalation of tension with Russia based on variety of factor, following the discovery of a Ukraine spry ring Planning terror attacks in Crimea. Russia observers suggest the West may be looking for an exist from Ukraine debacle. The White House feared that if the Ukrainian military fought in Crimea, it would give Putin justification to launch greater military intervention in Ukraine, using similar logic to what Moscow employed in 2008 when Putin invaded large parts of Georgia in response to a pre-emptive attack by the Tbilisi government. Russian forces occupy two Georgian provinces to this day.
"You should think, what are the reasons the US is avoiding cold war with Russia"
Is there any reasons why the United State is avoiding Cold war with Russia?
Agreeing to the compromise might be hard for Washington as Kiev. The latter has more to lose, but the US policymaker have come to believe that they have been anointed to govern and Rule the Entire Earth.While the US and Europe can weaken Russia's and many other countries economy and target Russia's elite, they are not willing to risk military conflict with a nuclear-armed power.
Nuclear weapons may play a different roles
Russia is unlike any other country on the planet. They are the one country that could wipe the United States off the face of the Earth in 45 minutes. Russia currently has the largest arsenal of nuclear warheads in the world, with 8,000 weapons in their arsenal (the U.S has up to 7,315).
Can the United States afford to continue with its current aggressive stance towards Russia over the conflict in Ukraine? Do America really want to destroy their hard earned peace with Russia, especially at a time when America is digging its way out of a financial crisis and is already involved in several wars around the globe? In asking ourselves if we are really ready for World War III, we must understand that there will very likely be the possibility of nuclear war. Now this may sound very extreme. We would like to think that all reasonable nations would do everything in their power to avoid such a nightmare.
How The United State, Europe and NATO Cause Global Economic Crisis to the World and how it Affect African countries.
Ukraine is on the Russian border not the U.S border. The U.S backed a coup to overthrow a democratically elected government in Ukraine, NATO is being used as a mercenary force to economy will of the U.S. And the EU plans was to take over Ukraine via proxies, then force Russia out of Crimea, use to port to bring in LNG and use the Ukraine pipelines to sell it to Europe. U.S companies bought 47% of the U.S energy transit lines in Ukraine and Joe Biden's son was made the Director of a Ukraine energy company, But Biden's kid didn't speak Ukrainian. So this means the U.S is the Aggressor in Ukraine.
We don't have to look too far in history to see Saudi Arabia, the world largest oil exporter and producers,using the oil price to archive its foreign policy objectives. Turning to the current price drop, the Saudis and OPEC have a vested interest in taking out higher-cost competitors, such as US shale oil producers, who will certainly be hurt by the lower price. Even before the price drop, the Saudis were selling their oil to China at a discount. OPEC's refusal on Nov. 27 to cut production seemed like the baldest evidence yet that the oil price drop was really an oil price war between Saudi Arabia and the US.
“What is the reason for the United States and some U.S. allies wanting to drive down the price of oil?”
Many believe the oil price plunge is the result of deliberate and well-planned collusion on the part of the United States and Saudi Arabia to punish Russia and Iran for supporting the murderous Assad regime in Syria. Proponents of this theory point to a Sept. 11 meeting between US Secretary of State John Kerry and Saudi King Abdullah at his palace on the Red Sea, it was during that meeting that a deal was hammered out between Kerry and Abdullah. In it, the Saudis would support Syrian airstrikes against Islamic State (ISIS), in exchange for Washington backing the Saudis in toppling Assad. By opposing Syria, Abdullah grabs the opportunity to strike a blow against Iran, which he sees as a powerful regional rival due to its nuclear ambitions, its support for militant groups Hamas and Hezbollah, and its alliance with Syria, which it provides with weapons and funding. The two nations are also divided by religion, with the majority of Saudis following the Sunni version of Islam, and most Iranians considering themselves Shi’ites.
The Saudis know the Iranians are vulnerable on the oil price. Experts say the country needs $140 a barrel oil to balance its budget; at sub-$60 prices, the Saudis succeed in pressuring Iran's supreme leader, Ayatollah Ali Khamanei, possibly containing its nuclear ambitions and making the country more pliable to the West, which has the power to reduce or lift sanctions if Iran cooperates. Some commentators have offered a more conspiratorial theory for the Saudis wanting to get rid of Assad. They point to a 2011 agreement between Syria, Iran and Iraq that would see a pipeline running from the Iranian Port Assalouyeh to Damascus via Iraq. The $10-billion project would take three years to complete and would be fed gas from the South Pars gas field, which Iran shares with Qatar. Iranian officials have said they plan to extend the pipeline to the Mediterranean to supply gas to Europe – in competition with Qatar, the world's largest LNG exporter.
Today the US-backed wars in Ukraine and in Syria are but two fronts in the same strategic war to cripple Russia and China and also know to the U.S that the economic crisis will affect African continent, and to rupture any Eurasian counter-pole to a US-controlled New World Order. In each, control of energy pipelines, this time primarily of natural gas pipelines—from Russia to the EU via Ukraine and from Iran and Syria to the EU via Syria—is the strategic goal.
"how The Economy Crisis Is Affecting Africa Oil Producing Country"
The Africa continent's largest economy and oil producer, Nigeria is really affected the most, unlike producers in the former Soviet Union and in the Middle East, Nigeria has calibrated his budget using the rather realistic price of $38 per barrel. The Problem in Nigeria is that, even at the price point, the budget will run a deficit of $11 billion, 2.2 percent of GDP. Abuja which is the Federal capital of Nigeria find it difficult to maintain its fuel subsidy programs and its currency peg to the U.S dollar, put in place in June 2014 even till date when the Nigeria Naira fell to 40 percent. Since that time, the gap between the official and unofficial currency exchange rate has widened. Low oil price will only make it wilder. The Nigeria President, Muhammadu Buhari, has been clear that he does not support devaluation but will face pressure from various political interest and will likely need to cut the country spending.
The Nigeria Naira has fallen dramatically against the USD and EUR, inflation has increase, and its economic growth has slowed down. A decrease in exports resulted in a reduction of the foreign currency flow in the country, and falling oil prices accelerated this process where by the Nigerian Citizen now blames this fault on the Nigeria governments. As of writing of this Article, the price of a barrel of oil hovered below $50 which is almost half of what it was a year ago. the Panic of holders of Nigeria currency who wanted to convert their wealth to USD OR EUR before the currency declined too much further compounded this process.
In already-unstable country in Africa such as South Sudan or Nigeria, the end to the oil bonanza will reduce the financial prize that oil fields or stolen oil represent and could reduce the resources available for weapons and ammunition. For South Sudan, where the arrangement to export oil through Sudan at a fixed fee of $25 a barrel exacerbates the impacts of falling oil price, this could help take some of the heat out of the on-going civil war. In Nigeria, while lower prices could reduce incentives for large-scale oil thefts, they may also reduce funds available for security forces, exacerbating the government's problem with Boko Haram.
"who Benefits From The Global Economic Crisis And The World Of Cheap Oil?"
We all know gasoline,diesel,heating oil and natural gas prices has dropped, Household that use heating oil to warm their homes are also seeing savings
In 2005, the UK became a net importer of oil, complicating its relationship with a source of bumper revenues over the previous 25 years. The recent fall in the oil price helps the balance of payments and gives a price cut on consumers worth EUR 3million a day, but it hits an industry that keeps much of Scotland's west coast in employment and provides the exchequer with significant if declining tax revenue. The boss of wood group, an oil of engineering firm, said 15,000 jobs could go next year as output drops to 800,000 barrels per day. Nicola Sturgeon, Scottish National Party leader, is likely to be re-calibrating her stance on North sea oil as a secure base for the finances of an independence Scotland.
"Reason Why African Countries Are Facing The Global Economic Challenge And How It Can Be Solve"
The challenge that Africa is facing is not only that of understanding how new scientific discoveries may have an impact on our societies. African countries have being facing lot of Global economic challenges but this is due to lack of Unintelligent African leaders.
Aside from political and social reason, many economist argue that the absence of economic growth is in part due to a detrimental geography that impacts on the economy. But in this cases, Oil rich African countries are also more likely to be exploited by other companies or powerful corporations who always find a way not to pay much needed taxes. Disparities pose the problem if redistribution of wealth in most developing countries, but many African countries are simply too poor to redistribute anything. The average income level is so low that even employment people live under poverty.
LACK OF SUCCESS OF AFRICAN REGIONAL GROUPINGS.
The design of Africa integration schemes around inward-looking industrialisation like ECOWAS, CEMAC, COMESA, SACD. Are meant that economic cost of participation for member states are of the immediate and concrete, while the economic benefits are long-term and uncertain and are often unevenly distributed among member states.
The dependence of many African countries on their formal colonial powers tended to work against viable regional groupings.
The institutional weakness, including the existence of too many regional organisations, a tendency towards top heavy structures with too many political appointments, failure by governments to meet their financial obligations to regional organisations, poor preparations before meeting, and lack of follow up by sectoral ministries on decisions taken at regional meetings by head of states.
"How African Countries Can Benefits From The Global Economic Crisis And Depend On Their Own".
AFRICA DEVELOPMENT.
With a big technological, Political and military stability development. More African countries can base their exports to a larger degree on already manufactured products, and less on raw materials, which will increase their incomes. African countries need to make technology and innovation a strategic priority from the standpoint of a world-view that Africa can invent and innovate, and must do so in order to liberate itself from the oppressive dominance of globalisation. Free trade would make tremendous since and would help the continent tremendously. what lies there is that, many countries in Africa get high percentage of their revenue from customs duties, and big shots make a lot of money on corrupt handling of those duties. there would have be much better governance all around before this ever came into effect. Science, technology and innovation can turn their destiny around.
UNITED STATE OF AFRICA.
National liberation movements and Using of one Africa national passport and Africa currency is another ways for African countries to depend on themselves instead of converting there currency to USD and EURO. it's obviously crucially important that id you allow the fee movement of people that the governments of union have a sense of who actually is moving, My point is that African countries should be border-less among themselves for free movement and trades, This will civilise the poor African countries.
AFRICAN CURRENCY
Price in different currencies can be difficult to compare. If all African countries spend the same currency, price comparison is straightforward. This may help firms cut cost, as they will be able to find the cheapest product easily. Because converting between currencies has a cost for individual and firms but a single currency in the continent will remove these cost.
Africa currency will also reduce interest rate in inflation, with the formation of single union, the central bank strives keep the interest rates and inflation as low as possible. This will benefits countries which traditionally had high inflation rate as well as it will improve Africa currency international credibility which will be leading to move investments in the continent.
STOP AFRICA FOREIGN AID.
The aid to Africa has made the poor more poorer, and the growth slower. The insidious aid culture has left African countries more debt-laden, more inflation-prone, more vulnerable to the vagaries of the currency markets and more attractive to high quality investment. It's increased the risk of civil conflicts and unrest. for example, more than 70% of sub-Saharan Africa's population is under the age of 25 and with few economic prospects which is a cause for worry. Aid is an unmitigated political, economic and humanitarian disasters. Aid supported scholarship, have certainly helped send African girls to school, never mind that they won't be able to find job in there own countries once they graduated. This kind of aid can provides band-aid solution to alleviate immediate suffering. but by its very nature cannot be the platform for long-term sustainable growth.
Whatever its strengths and weaknesses, such charity-based aid is relatively small beer when compares to the sea of money that floods Africa each year in government-to-government aid or aid from large development institutions such as the world bank.
Over the past 40 years at least $1 trillion of development-related aid has been transferred from rich countries to Africa.
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